Mar 22, 2016. School of Agricultural Technology, Food Technology and Nutrition. Department of Food Technology. 'learning by doing' the students will learn to use Ms Word and Ms Excel and to develop skills in using software. Mechanics by Ronald Darby. Unit Operations in Food Processing by Richard L.

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Cultivation of maize in an illustration from the 16th c. Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the of.

Recent research in the early 21st century has modified this view somewhat; scholars now indicate the adjacent Valley of south-central Mexico as the center of domestication. An influential 2002 study by Matsuoka et al. Has demonstrated that, rather than the multiple independent domestications model, all maize arose from a single domestication in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago. The study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands.

Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths. This is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands. Archaeologist Dolores Piperno has said: A large corpus of data indicates that it [maize] was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP [5600 BC] and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP [5000-4000 BC]. — Dolores Piperno, The Origins of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics: Patterns, Process, and New Developments [ ] Since then, even earlier dates have been published. According to a genetic study by, corn cultivation was introduced in South America from Mexico, in two great waves: the first, more than 6000 years ago, spread through the.

Evidence of cultivation in Peru has been found dating to about 6700 years ago. The second wave, about 2000 years ago, through the lowlands of South America. Before domestication, maize plants grew only small, 25 millimetres (1 in) long corn cobs, and only one per plant.

In Spielvogel's view, many centuries of artificial selection (rather than the current view that maize was exploited by interplanting with ) by the indigenous people of the Americas resulted in the development of maize plants capable of growing several cobs per plant, which were usually several centimetres/inches long each. The and cultivated maize in numerous varieties throughout; they cooked, ground and processed it through. It was believed that beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the. Research of the 21st century has established even earlier dates. The region developed a trade network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. Maize is the most widely grown grain throughout the Americas, with 361 million grown in the United States in 2014 (Production table).

Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn. Made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009. Columbian exchange After the arrival of Europeans in 1492, Spanish settlers consumed maize and explorers and traders and introduced it to other countries. Spanish settlers far preferred wheat bread to maize,, or potatoes. Maize flour could not be substituted for wheat for communion bread, since in belief only wheat could undergo and be transformed into the body of Christ. Some Spaniards worried that by eating indigenous foods, which they did not consider nutritious, they would weaken and risk turning into Indians.

'In the view of Europeans, it was the food they ate, even more than the environment in which they lived, that gave Amerindians and Spaniards both their distinctive physical characteristics and their characteristic personalities.' Despite these worries, Spaniards did consume maize. Archeological evidence from Florida sites indicate they cultivated it as well. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates. It was cultivated in just a few decades after Columbus's voyages and then spread to, West Africa and elsewhere.

Sugar-rich varieties called are usually grown for human consumption as kernels, while varieties are used for animal feed, various corn-based human food uses (including grinding into or, pressing into, and fermentation and distillation into alcoholic beverages like ), and as chemical feedstocks. Many small male flowers make up the male inflorescence, called the tassel. The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous word for the plant, mahiz.

It is known by other names around the world. The word 'corn' outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any crop, its meaning understood to vary geographically to refer to the local. In the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, corn primarily means maize; this usage started as a shortening of 'Indian corn'. 'Indian corn' primarily means maize (the staple grain of ), but can refer more specifically to multicolored ' used for decoration.

In places outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand, corn often refers to maize in culinary contexts. The narrower meaning is usually indicated by some additional word, as in, sweetcorn,,, the puffed confection known as and the breakfast cereal known as. In Southern Africa, maize is commonly called mielie () or mealie (), words derived from the Portuguese word for maize, milho.

Maize is preferred in formal, scientific, and international usage because it refers specifically to this one grain, unlike corn, which has a complex variety of meanings that vary by context and geographic region. Maize is used by agricultural bodies and such as the and. National agricultural and industry associations often include the word maize in their name even in English-speaking countries where the local, informal word is something other than maize; for example, the Maize Association of Australia, the Indian Maize Development Association, the Kenya Maize Consortium and Maize Breeders Network, the National Maize Association of Nigeria, the Zimbabwe Seed Maize Association.

However, in commodities trading, corn consistently refers to maize and not other grains. Structure and physiology The maize plant is often 3 m (10 ft) in height, though some natural strains can grow 12 m (39 ft). The stem is commonly composed of 20 of 18 cm (7.1 in) length.

A leaf, which grows from each node, is generally 9 cm (4 in) in width and 120 cm (4 ft) in length. Ears develop above a few of the leaves in the midsection of the plant, between the stem and leaf sheath, elongating by around 3 millimetres (0.12 in) per day, to a length of 18 cm (7 in) with 60 cm (24 in) being the maximum alleged in the subspecies. They are female, tightly enveloped by several layers of ear leaves commonly called husks.

Certain varieties of maize have been bred to produce many additional developed ears. These are the source of the ' used as a vegetable in. The apex of the stem ends in the tassel, an of male flowers. When the tassel is mature and conditions are suitably warm and dry, anthers on the tassel and release pollen. Maize pollen is (dispersed by wind), and because of its large settling velocity, most pollen falls within a few meters of the tassel. Elongated, called, emerge from the whorl of husk leaves at the end of the ear. They are often pale yellow and 18 cm (7 in) in length, like tufts of hair in appearance.

At the end of each is a carpel, which may develop into a 'kernel' if fertilized by a pollen grain. The of the fruit is fused with the seed coat referred to as ', typical of the, and the entire kernel is often referred to as the '. The cob is close to a in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of, and adhere in regular rows around a white, pithy substance, which forms the ear. The maximum size of kernels is reputedly 2.5 cm (1 in). An ear commonly holds 600 kernels. They are of various colors: blackish,,, green, red, white and yellow.

When ground into, maize yields more flour with much less than wheat does. It lacks the protein of wheat and, therefore, makes baked goods with poor rising capability.

A that accumulates more sugar and less in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called. Young ears can be consumed raw, with the and silk, but as the plant matures (usually during the summer months), the cob becomes tougher and the silk dries to inedibility. By the end of the, the kernels dry out and become difficult to chew without cooking them tender first in boiling water. Pci Serial Port Driver Optiplex 755 Download.

Mature maize ear on a stalk Planting density affects multiple aspects of maize. Modern farming techniques in usually rely on dense planting, which produces one ear per stalk. Stands of maize are yet denser, and achieve a lower percentage of ears and more plant matter. Maize is a and flowers in a certain number of >10 °C (50 °F) in the environment to which it is adapted. The magnitude of the influence that long nights have on the number of days that must pass before maize is genetically prescribed and regulated by the system. Can be eccentric in tropical such that the long days characteristic of higher latitudes allow the plants to grow so tall that they do not have enough time to produce seed before being killed by frost.

These attributes, however, may prove useful in using tropical maize for. Immature maize shoots accumulate a powerful antibiotic substance, 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one ().

DIMBOA is a member of a group of (also known as benzoxazinoids) that serve as a natural defense against a wide range of pests, including insects, fungi and. DIMBOA is also found in related grasses, particularly wheat. A maize mutant (bx) lacking DIMBOA is highly susceptible to attack by and. DIMBOA is also responsible for the relative resistance of immature maize to the (family ). As maize matures, DIMBOA levels and resistance to the corn borer decline. Because of its shallow roots, maize is susceptible to droughts, intolerant of nutrient-deficient soils, and prone to be uprooted by severe winds.

Multicolored corn kernels () While yellow maizes derive their color from and, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to and. These latter substances are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerisation of by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 -like of the A1 gene encoding for the (reducing into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a.

The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins. Abnormal flowers Maize flowers may sometimes exhibit mutations that lead to the formation of female flowers in the tassel. These mutations, ts4 and Ts6, prohibit the development of the stamen while simultaneously promoting pistil development. This may cause containing both male and female flowers, or flowers. Field of maize in Maize reproduces sexually each year.

This randomly selects half the genes from a given plant to propagate to the next generation, meaning that desirable traits found in the crop (like high yield or good nutrition) can be lost in subsequent generations unless certain techniques are used. Maize breeding in prehistory resulted in large plants producing large ears. Modern breeding began with individuals who selected highly productive varieties in their fields and then sold seed to other farmers.

Reid was one of the earliest and most successful developing Reid's Yellow Dent in the 1860s. These early efforts were based on. Later breeding efforts included ear to row selection, (C.

1896), hybrids made from selected lines (G. Shull, 1909), and the highly successful double cross hybrids using 4 inbred lines ( ca. University supported breeding programs were especially important in developing and introducing modern hybrids. (Ref Jugenheimer Hybrid Maize Breeding and Seed Production pub.

1958) by the 1930s, companies such as devoted to production of hybrid maize had begun to influence long term development. Internationally important seed banks such as (CIMMYT) and the US bank at Maize Genetics Cooperation Stock Center maintain important for future crop development. Since the 1940s the best strains of maize have been first-generation hybrids made from inbred strains that have been optimized for specific traits, such as yield, nutrition, drought, pest and disease tolerance. Both conventional cross-breeding and genetic modification have succeeded in increasing output and reducing the need for cropland, pesticides, water and fertilizer.

There is conflicting evidence to support the hypothesis that maize yield potential has increased over the past few decades. This suggests that changes in yield potential are associated with leaf angle, lodging resistance, tolerance of high plant density, disease/pest tolerance, and other agronomic traits rather than increase of yield potential per individual plant. Global maize program. Main article: was one of the 26 grown commercially in 2016.

Grown since 1997 in the United States and Canada, 92% of the US maize crop was genetically modified in 2016 and 33% of the worldwide maize crop was GM in 2016. As of 2011, Herbicide-tolerant maize varieties were grown in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia, El Salvador, the European Union, Honduras, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, the Russian Federation, Singapore, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, and USA, and insect-resistant corn was grown in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Czech Republic, Egypt, the EU, Honduras, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Philippines, Romania, Russian Federation, South Africa, Switzerland, Taiwan, USA, and Uruguay.

In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of food products were recalled due to the presence of genetically modified corn, which had been approved only for animal consumption and had not been approved for human consumption, and was subsequently withdrawn from the market. See also: Maize is the domesticated variant of. The two plants have dissimilar appearance, maize having a single tall stalk with multiple leaves and teosinte being a short, bushy plant.

The difference between the two is largely controlled by differences in just two genes. Several theories had been proposed about the specific origin of maize in Mesoamerica: • It is a direct of a annual, Zea mays ssp. Parviglumis, native to the valley in south-eastern, with up to 12% of its obtained from Zea mays ssp.

Mexicana through. This theory was further confirmed by the 2002 study of Matsuoka et al. • It has been derived from hybridization between a small domesticated maize (a slightly changed form of a wild maize) and a teosinte of section Luxuriantes, either Z. • It has undergone two or more domestications either of a wild maize or of a teosinte.

(The term 'teosinte' describes all and subspecies in the genus Zea, excluding Zea mays ssp. Mays.) • It has evolved from a hybridization of Z. In the late 1930s, Paul Mangelsdorf suggested that domesticated maize was the result of a hybridization event between an unknown wild maize and a species of, a related genus. This theory about the origin of maize has been refuted by modern, which refutes Mangelsdorf's model and the fourth listed above.: 40 The teosinte origin theory was proposed by the Russian botanist in 1931 and the later American -winner in 1932.: 10 It is supported experimentally and by recent studies of the plants' genomes.

Teosinte and maize are able to cross-breed and produce fertile offspring. A number of questions remain concerning the species, among them: • how the immense diversity of the species of sect.

Zea originated, • how the tiny archaeological specimens of 3500–2700 BC could have been selected from a teosinte, and • how domestication could have proceeded without leaving remains of teosinte or maize with teosintoid traits earlier than the earliest known until recently, dating from ca. The of maize is of particular interest to researchers—,,, geographers, etc. The process is thought by some to have started 7,500 to 12,000 years ago. Research from the 1950s to 1970s originally focused on the hypothesis that maize domestication occurred in the highlands between the states of and, because the oldest archaeological remains of maize known at the time were found there.

Connection with 'parviglumis' subspecies. (top), maize-teosinte hybrid (middle), maize (bottom) Genetic studies led by identified Zea mays ssp. Parviglumis, native to the valley in Mexico's southwestern highlands, and also known as Balsas teosinte, as being the teosinte genetically most similar to modern maize. This has been confirmed by further more recent studies, which refined this hypothesis somewhat.

Archaeobotanical studies published in 2009 now point to the middle part of the Balsas River valley as the more likely location of early domestication; this river is not very long, so these locations are not very distant. Stone milling tools with maize residue have been found in an 8,700-years old layer of deposits in a cave not far from. Also, Doebley was part of the team that is credited with first finding, back in 2002, that maize had been domesticated only once, about 9000 years ago, and then spread throughout the Americas. A primitive corn was being grown in southern Mexico, Central America, and northern South America 7,000 years ago. Archaeological remains of early maize ears, found at in the, date back roughly 6,250 years; the oldest ears from caves near, Puebla, date ca. Maize pollen dated to 7300 cal B.P. From, on the Caribbean coast has also been recovered.

As maize was introduced to new cultures, new uses were developed and new varieties selected to better serve in those preparations. Maize was the staple food, or a major staple – along with, Andean region,,, and – of most North American, Mesoamerican, South American, and Caribbean cultures. The Mesoamerican civilization, in particular, was deeply interrelated with maize. Its traditions and rituals involved all aspects of maize cultivation – from the planting to the food preparation.

Maize formed the Mesoamerican people's identity. Stucco head of the, 550-850 AD.

It is unknown what precipitated its domestication, because the edible portion of the wild variety is too small and hard to obtain to be eaten directly, as each kernel is enclosed in a very hard bivalve shell. It is possible that, early on, teosinte may have been gathered as preferred feed for domestic animals. [ ] Also, back in 1939, George Beadle demonstrated that the kernels of teosinte are readily 'popped' for human consumption, like modern popcorn. Some have argued it would have taken too many generations of to produce large, compressed ears for efficient cultivation. However, studies of the hybrids readily made by intercrossing teosinte and modern maize suggest this objection is not well founded.

Spreading to the north Around 2500 BC, maize began to spread to the north; it was first cultivated in what is now the United States at several sites in New Mexico and Arizona, about 2100 BC. During the first millennium AD, maize cultivation spread more widely in the areas north. In particular, the large-scale adoption of maize agriculture and consumption in eastern North America took place about A.D.

Native Americans cleared large forest and grassland areas for the new crop. In 2005, research by the suggested that the rise in maize cultivation 500 to 1,000 years ago in what is now the southeastern United States corresponded with a decline of freshwater, which are very sensitive to environmental changes. Cultivation Planting. Young stalks Because it is cold-intolerant, in the maize must be planted in the spring. Its is generally shallow, so the plant is dependent on soil moisture.

As a C4 plant (a plant that uses ), maize is a considerably more water-efficient crop than C3 plants (plants that use ) like the small grains, and. Maize is most sensitive to drought at the time of silk emergence, when the flowers are ready for pollination. In the United States, a good harvest was traditionally predicted if the maize were 'knee-high by the ', although modern generally exceed this growth rate. Maize used for is harvested while the plant is green and the fruit immature. Sweet corn is harvested in the 'milk stage', after pollination but before starch has formed, between late summer and early to mid-autumn.

Field maize is left in the field very late in the autumn to thoroughly dry the grain, and may, in fact, sometimes not be harvested until winter or even early spring. The importance of sufficient soil moisture is shown in many parts of, where periodic regularly causes maize crop failure and consequent. Although it is grown mainly in wet, hot climates, it has been said to thrive in cold, hot, dry or wet conditions, meaning that it is an extremely versatile crop. Mature plants showing ears Maize was planted by the in hills, in a complex system known to some as the. Maize provided support for, and the beans provided nitrogen derived from nitrogen-fixing bacteria which live on the roots of beans and other; and provided ground cover to stop weeds and inhibit evaporation by providing shade over the soil. This method was replaced by single species hill planting where each hill 60–120 cm (2.0–3.9 ft) apart was planted with three or four seeds, a method still used by home gardeners.

A later technique was 'checked maize', where hills were placed 40 in (1.0 m) apart in each direction, allowing cultivators to run through the field in two directions. In more arid lands, this was altered and seeds were planted in the bottom of 10–12 cm (3.9–4.7 in) deep furrows to collect water. Modern technique plants maize in rows which allows for cultivation while the plant is young, although the hill technique is still used in the maize fields of some Native American reservations. When maize is planted in rows, it also allows for planting of other crops between these rows to make more efficient use of land space. In most regions today, maize grown in residential is still often planted manually with a, whereas maize grown commercially is no longer planted manually but rather is planted with a.

In North America, fields are often planted in a two- with a crop, often in cooler climates and in regions with longer summers. Sometimes a third crop,, is added to the rotation. Many of the maize varieties grown in the United States and Canada are hybrids.

Often the varieties have been to tolerate or to provide protection against natural pests. Glyphosate is an herbicide which kills all plants except those with genetic tolerance. This genetic tolerance is very rarely found in nature.

In the midwestern United States, low-till or techniques are usually used. In low-till, fields are covered once, maybe twice, with a tillage implement either ahead of crop planting or after the previous harvest. The fields are planted and. Are controlled through the use of, and no cultivation tillage is done during the growing season.

This technique reduces moisture evaporation from the soil, and thus provides more moisture for the crop. The technologies mentioned in the previous paragraph enable low-till and no-till farming. Weeds compete with the crop for moisture and nutrients, making them undesirable. Harvesting maize, Before the 20th century, all maize harvesting was by, by, or by some combination of those. Whether the ears were hand-picked and the was grazed, or the whole plant was cut, gathered, and, people and did all the work. Between the 1890s and the 1970s, the technology of maize harvesting expanded greatly.

Today, all such technologies, from entirely manual harvesting to entirely mechanized, are still in use to some degree,, although the thoroughly mechanized versions predominate, as they offer the lowest when scaled to large farm operations. For small farms, their unit cost can be too high, as their higher cannot be over as many units. Before, most maize in North America was harvested by hand. This involved a large numbers of workers and associated social events (husking or shucking ).

From the 1890s onward, some machinery became available to partially mechanize the processes, such as one- and two-row mechanical pickers (picking the ear, leaving the ) and corn binders, which are designed specifically for maize (for example, on ). The latter produce that can be. By hand or mechanical picker, the entire ear is harvested, which then requires a separate operation of a maize sheller to remove the kernels from the ear. Whole ears of maize were often stored in, and these whole ears are a sufficient form for some livestock feeding use. Today corn cribs with whole ears, and corn binders, are less common because most modern farms harvest the grain from the field with a and store it in. The combine with a corn head (with points and snap rolls instead of a reel) does not cut the stalk; it simply pulls the stalk down. The stalk continues downward and is crumpled into a mangled pile on the ground, where it usually is left to become for the.

The ear of maize is too large to pass between slots in a plate as the snap rolls pull the stalk away, leaving only the ear and husk to enter the machinery. The combine separates out the husk and the cob, keeping only the kernels. When maize is a crop, the entire plant is usually chopped at once with a (chopper) and ensiled in silos or polymer wrappers. Ensiling of sheaves cut by a corn binder was formerly common in some regions but has become uncommon.

Bizhub 350 Drivers Windows 8 there. Worldwide maize production For storing grain in bins, the moisture of the grain must be sufficiently low to avoid spoiling. If the moisture content of the harvested grain is too high, are used to reduce the moisture content by blowing heated air through the grain.

This can require large amounts of energy in the form of combustible gases ( or ) and electricity to power the blowers. Production Maize is widely cultivated throughout the world, and a greater weight of maize is produced each year than any other grain.

In 2014, total world production was 1.04 billion, led by the United States with 35% of the total (table). China produced 21% of the global total.

Maize production - 2014 Country Production (millions of ) 361.1 215.6 79.9 33.1 28.5 23.7 23.3 World 1037.8 United States. Main article: In 2016, corn (maize) production was forecast to be over 15 billion, an increase of 11% over 2014 American production. Based on conditions as of August 2016, the expected yield would be the highest ever for the United States.

The area of harvested maize was forecast to be 87 million acres, an increase of 7% over 2015. Pests Insects • ( Spodoptera exempta) • (Eldana saccharina) • Common armyworm ( ) • ( Forficula auricularia) • ( Peregrinus maidis) • ( Rhopalosiphum maidis) • Corn rootworms ( spp) including ( Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte), Northern corn rootworm ( D. Barberi) and Southern corn rootworm ( D. Undecimpunctata howardi) • ( ) • ( Ostrinia furnacalis) • ( Ostrinia nubilalis) (ECB) • ( Spodoptera frugiperda) Some sweet corn varieties have developed partial resistance to fall army worms by producing a unique 33-kD proteinase that significantly retards fall army worm growth. • Corn earworm/Cotton bollworm ( ) • ( Elasmopalpus lignosellus) • ( Sitophilus zeamais) • Northern armyworm, Oriental armyworm or Rice ear-cutting caterpillar ( ) • ( Diatraea grandiosella) • ( Papaipema nebris) The susceptibility of maize to the European corn borer and corn rootworms, and the resulting large crop losses which are estimated at a billion dollars worldwide for each pest, led to the development of expressing the toxin. 'Bt maize' is widely grown in the United States and has been approved for release in Europe.

Dried maize, also known as, is used in Maize and (ground dried maize) constitute a in many regions of the world. Maize is central to. Virtually every dish in Mexican cuisine uses maize.

In the form of grain or cornmeal, maize is the main ingredient of,,, and all the dishes based on them, like,,,, and many more. In Mexico even a fungus of maize, known as is considered a delicacy.

Introduced into Africa by the Portuguese in the 16th century, maize has become Africa's most important staple food crop. Maize meal is made into a thick in many cultures: from the of Italy, the angu of Brazil, the of, to in the US (and in the South) or the food called in South Africa and, and in other parts of Africa. Maize meal is also used as a replacement for flour, to make and other baked products. (cornmeal treated with ) is the main ingredient for, and many other dishes of Central American food. Consists of kernels of certain varieties that explode when heated, forming fluffy pieces that are eaten as a snack. Roasted dried maize ears with semihardened kernels, coated with a seasoning mixture of fried chopped spring onions with salt added to the oil, is a popular in Vietnam.

Cancha, which are roasted maize chulpe kernels, are a very popular snack food in Peru, and also appears in traditional Peruvian. An unleavened bread called is a popular bread eaten in the of India and Pakistan. And chicha morada (purple chicha) are drinks typically made from particular types of maize. The first one is fermented and alcoholic, the second is a soft drink commonly drunk in Peru.

Are a common in North America and the United Kingdom, and found in many other countries all over the world. Maize can also be prepared as, in which the kernels are soaked with in a process called; or, which are coarsely ground hominy. These are commonly eaten in the, foods handed down from, who called the dish. The Brazilian dessert is made by boiling maize kernels in sweetened milk. Maize can also be harvested and consumed in the unripe state, when the kernels are fully grown but still soft. Unripe maize must usually be cooked to become palatable; this may be done by simply boiling or roasting the whole ears and eating the kernels right off the cob., a genetic variety that is high in sugars and low in starch, is usually consumed in the unripe state.

Such is a common dish in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom,, some parts of South America, and the Balkans, but virtually unheard of in some European countries. Corn on the cob was hawked on the streets of early 19th-century New York City by poor, barefoot ' Girls', who were thus the precursors of, wagons, and fruit stands seen on the streets of big cities today. The cooked, unripe kernels may also be shaved off the cob and served as a in side dishes,,, etc.

Alternatively, the raw unripe kernels may also be grated off the cobs and processed into a variety of cooked dishes, such as maize,,,,,, etc. Maizes on fire Maize is a major source of.

(maize flour) is a major ingredient in home cooking and in many industrialized food products. Maize is also a major source of () and of maize gluten.

Maize starch can be and enzymatically treated to produce syrups, particularly, a sweetener; and also fermented and distilled to produce. Grain alcohol from maize is traditionally the source of. Maize is sometimes used as the starch source for. Within the United States, the usage of maize for human consumption constitutes about 1/40th of the amount grown in the country. In the United States and Canada, maize is mostly grown to feed, as forage, (made by fermentation of chopped green cornstalks), or grain. Maize meal is also a significant ingredient of some commercial animal food products, such as. Nutritional value Sweetcorn, yellow, raw (seeds only) Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) 360 kJ (86 kcal).

• Units • μg = • mg = • IU = Percentages are roughly approximated using for adults. Source: Raw, yellow, sweet maize kernels are composed of 76% water, 19%, 3%, and 1% (table). In a 100- serving, maize kernels provide 86 and are a good source (10-19% of the ) of the,,, (B5) and (right table for raw, uncooked kernels, Nutrient Database).

In moderate amounts, they also supply and the, and whereas other nutrients are in low amounts (table). Maize has suboptimal amounts of the and, which accounts for its lower status as a protein source. Feed and fodder for livestock. See also: Maize is a major source of both grain and for. It is fed to the livestock in various ways. When it is used as a grain crop, the dried are used as feed.

They are often kept on the for storage in a, or they may be shelled off for storage in a. The farm that consumes the feed may produce it, purchase it on the market, or some of both. When the grain is used for feed, the rest of the plant (the ) can be used later as fodder, (litter),. When the whole maize plant (grain plus stalks and leaves) is used for fodder, it is usually and, as digestibility and palatability are higher in the ensilaged form than in the dried form. Maize silage is one of the most valuable forages for ruminants. Before the advent of widespread ensilaging, it was traditional to gather the corn into after harvesting, where it dried further.

With or without a subsequent move to the cover of a barn, it was then stored for weeks to several months until fed to the livestock. Today ensilaging can occur not only in but also in silage wrappers. However, in the tropics maize can be harvested year-round and fed as green forage to the animals. Chemicals Starch from maize can also be made into,,, and many other chemical products. The, a plentiful watery byproduct of maize process, is widely used in the and research as a culture medium to grow many kinds of. Is found in and is used as a food coloring. See also: and 'Feed maize' is being used increasingly for heating; specialized (similar to ) are available and use either feed maize or wood pellets to generate heat.

Maize cobs are also used as a fuel source. Maize is relatively cheap and home-heating furnaces have been developed which use maize kernels as a fuel. They feature a large hopper that feeds the uniformly sized maize kernels (or wood pellets or pits) into the fire. Maize is increasingly used as a feedstock for the production of. When considering where to construct an ethanol plant, one of the site selection criteria is to ensure there is locally available feedstock.

Ethanol is mixed with gasoline to decrease the amount of pollutants emitted when used to fuel motor vehicles. High fuel prices in mid-2007 led to higher demand for ethanol, which in turn led to higher prices paid to farmers for maize.

This led to the 2007 harvest being one of the most profitable maize crops in modern history for farmers. Because of the relationship between fuel and maize, prices paid for the crop now tend to track the price of oil. [ ] The price of food is affected to a certain degree by the use of maize for biofuel production. The cost of transportation, production, and marketing are a large portion (80%) of the price of food in the United States. Higher energy costs affect these costs, especially transportation. The increase in food prices the consumer has been seeing is mainly due to the higher energy cost.

The effect of biofuel production on other food crop prices is indirect. Use of maize for biofuel production increases the demand, and therefore price of maize. This, in turn, results in farm acreage being diverted from other food crops to maize production. This reduces the supply of the other food crops and increases their prices.

Farm-based maize silage digester located near in Germany, 2007. Green inflatable biogas holder is shown on top of the digester Maize is widely used in Germany as a feedstock for. Here the maize is harvested, shredded then placed in clamps from which it is fed into the biogas plants. This process makes use of the whole plant rather than simply using the kernels as in the production of fuel ethanol. A power plant in Strem near,, Austria, began in 2005.

Research is being done to make out of the biogas by the method. Children playing in a maize kernel box An unusual use for maize is to create a ' (or 'maize maze') as a tourist attraction. The idea of a maize maze was introduced by the American Maze Company who created a maze in in 1993.

Traditional mazes are most commonly grown using, but these take several years to mature. The rapid growth of a field of maize allows a maze to be laid out using at the start of a growing season and for the maize to grow tall enough to obstruct a visitor's line of sight by the start of the summer. In Canada and the US, these are popular in many farming communities.

Maize kernels can be used in place of sand in a enclosure for children's play. Stigmas from female maize flowers, popularly called, are sold as. [ ] Maize is used as a, called 'dough balls'.

It is particularly popular in Europe for. Additionally, feed corn is sometimes used by hunters to bait animals such as deer or wild hogs.

United States usage breakdown The breakdown of usage of the 12.1-billion- (307-million-tonne) 2008 US maize crop was as follows, according to the World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates Report by the USDA. Use Amount million bushels million tonnes percentage livestock feed 5,250 133.4 43.4 production 3,650 92.7 30.2 exports 1,850 47.0 15.3 production of starch, corn oil, sweeteners (, etc.) 943 24.0 7.8 human consumption—grits, corn flour, corn meal, beverage alcohol 327 8.3 2.7 In the US since 2009/2010, maize feedstock use for ethanol production has somewhat exceeded direct use for livestock feed; maize use for fuel ethanol was 5,130 million bushels (130 million tonnes) in the 2013/2014 marketing year. A fraction of the maize feedstock dry matter used for ethanol production is usefully recovered as DDGS (dried distillers grains with solubles). In the 2010/2011 marketing year, about 29.1 million tonnes of DDGS were fed to US livestock and poultry. Because starch utilization in fermentation for ethanol production leaves other grain constituents more concentrated in the residue, the feed value per kg of DDGS, with regard to ruminant-metabolizable energy and protein, exceeds that of the grain. Feed value for monogastric animals, such as swine and poultry, is somewhat lower than for ruminants. Main article: When maize was first introduced into farming systems other than those used by traditional native-American peoples, it was generally welcomed with enthusiasm for its productivity.

However, a widespread problem of malnutrition soon arose wherever maize was introduced as a. This was a mystery, since these types of malnutrition were not normally seen among the indigenous Americans, for whom maize was the principal staple food.

It was eventually discovered that the indigenous Americans had learned to soak maize in -water—made with ashes and lime () since at least 1200–1500 BC by and North Americans—which liberates the B-vitamin, the lack of which was the underlying cause of the condition known as. Maize was introduced into the diet of nonindigenous Americans without the necessary cultural knowledge acquired over thousands of years in the Americas. In the late 19th century, pellagra reached epidemic proportions in parts of the southern US, as medical researchers debated two theories for its origin: the deficiency theory (which was eventually shown to be true) said that pellagra was due to a deficiency of some nutrient, and the germ theory said that pellagra was caused by a germ transmitted by stable flies. A third theory, promoted by the eugenicist, held that people only contracted pellagra if they were susceptible to it due to certain 'constitutional, inheritable' traits of the affected individual. Once alkali processing and dietary variety were understood and applied, pellagra disappeared in the developed world. The development of high lysine maize and the promotion of a more balanced diet have also contributed to its demise.

Pellagra still exists today in food-poor areas and refugee camps where people survive on donated maize. Maize has been an essential crop in the since the. The culture from Northern made ceramics from earth, water, and fire. This pottery was a sacred substance, formed in significant shapes and used to represent important themes. Maize was represented anthropomorphically as well as naturally. In the United States, maize ears along with tobacco leaves are carved into the capitals of columns in the building. Maize itself is sometimes used for temporary architectural detailing when the intent is to celebrate the fall season, local agricultural productivity and culture.

Bundles of dried maize stalks are often displayed often along with pumpkins, gourds and straw in autumnal displays outside homes and businesses. A well-known example of architectural use is the in Mitchell, South Dakota, which uses cobs and ears of colored maize to implement a mural design that is recycled annually.

Another well known example is the in, where hundreds of concrete ears of corn lay in a grassy field. A maize stalk with two ripe ears is depicted on the of the Croatian 1 coin, minted since 1993.